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Estimate crop production costs by considering all phases of production, from seed procurement to delivery. To improve the accuracy of the estimated costs, consider the timeframe for growing the crop, the size of the stock, the labour and materials required, and the fact that some crop losses will take place during production.

Again, starting with a small pilot phase is a good way to determine the feasibility of starting a nursery. The feasibility assessment should look at the species potentially available for the nursery to grow and match those species with the nursery site, goals, client needs, and nursery capabilities.

Of course, the cost of plant materials and market price also must be considered. Will the emphasis be on growing plants from seeds or cuttings? How long does it take to grow these species to target specifications? What size plants should be produced? Several scenarios should be examined, including a variety of facility designs, sizes, and locations, so that the best conditions to meet projected needs are identified.

Select a Site for the Nursery After the decision has been made to establish a nursery, an appropriate site must be selected. Think about working with nature, rather than against it, for the most effective, efficient, and economical design. The less the natural environment has to be modified to produce high-quality plants, the less expense the nursery will have to incur to create optimal crop conditions figure 2.

Again, an understanding of the target plants to produce, will help match the site to the needs of the crops. Careful observation of site conditions and an assessment of past and present climatic records are important. Nursery site selected in the existing environment 2. Plan Structures and Flow of Work Commonly, rather than a single, large structure, a diversity of smaller structures is used and is tailored to meet the needs of the crops as they go through their development.

Structural design is also affected by container types and growing media. For example, bench layout must be planned to accommodate the container sizes. In turn, container type, growing media, and bench layout impact the design of the irrigation system. All these elements then come into play for management practices: fertilizing and watering, working with beneficial microorganisms and pests, and managing the overall flow of work in the nursery. Although crop production is the core of nursery activities, it is only part of the whole picture.

Preparation, cleanup, and storage must also be well planned. Where will seeds be cleaned, stored, treated, and tested? Where will containers be cleaned, sterilized, and stored when not in use? As nursery activities are planned, think about the flow of work and the design structures that facilitate the movement of people and plants in an efficient and safe way.

Good planning takes place in time and space figure 2. Time must be allotted for important activities such as outreach and educational programs; conducting trials and experiments to improve plant quality; and learning more through attending field days, meetings, and other events. Other environmental issues and risks should be considered. For example, the design should look at not just where good-quality water will come from for irrigation, but where the water will go after nursery use.

The water may contain fertilizers and be a potential source of pollution, possibly creating legal issues for the nursery. With good planning, that same water may be used as a resource, directed to other crops, or recycled. Thoughtful irrigation design and application minimizes the amount of water used, provides for the needs of plants, and deals with runoff appropriately. Time and space planning of a nursery In areas at risk of high winds, making use of a natural windbreak or having the ability to quickly remove the plastic from the roof of a greenhouse may save a structure in a bad storm.

A backup water supply ensures crop survival through periods of drought or uncertainty. Firebreaks or a site selected to minimize fire risks can preclude disaster. Knowing the site and thinking far into the future will help in planning for contingencies and increase the likelihood of long-term success. The process of crop planning usually includes the following components: a. Identify the seed dormancy of each species and apply treatments to overcome dormancy so that a reasonably uniform crop develops within a target timeframe.

Understand the three growth phases crops go through establishment, rapid growth, and hardening and the distinct requirements for each phase. Develop growing schedules for crop production from propagule procurement from out-planting and detail changes as the growing cycle progresses.

List space, labour, equipment, and supplies required to support the crop during the three growth stages. Keep written records, including a daily log and plant development record. Develop and record accurate propagation protocols so that success can be replicated next time. Exact recordkeeping is an important part of effective nursery management.

A common limitation to nursery productivity is lack of species-specific and site-specific knowledge about seed treatments, germination requirements, plant development, and special crop needs. One of the greatest potential benefits of good recordkeeping is the development of specific, successful propagation protocols. Planning the schedule, management practices, and facilities for each crop through each phase of growth will help maximize seedling growth and quality.

It is recognized that crops rarely conform to the exact specifications of the protocol, but protocols and planning are essential guides to keep plants on target and to preclude potential problems at each development phase.

Key Planning Components During crop planning, it is important to keep the process of plant production in mind. For plant nurseries, five key crop planning components can be used: i.

Determine available growing space. Plan crop layout in the nursery based on the number of plants required. Schedule seed treatment and plot planting.

Schedule pot treatment. Crop Growth Phases Understanding the growth phases that crops go through is essential to crop planning. A tiny germinant has very different needs and requirements than a large plant that is almost ready for out-planting. The development of most crops can be divided into three phases: establishment, rapid growth, and hardening. Plants in each of these phases have distinct requirements for light, water, nursery space, and the types of attention and labour necessary to keep them healthy.

Table 1 summarizes some typical aspects of each of the three phases. Please note that these aspects are generalized and will not apply to all species. Table 1. The three phases of crop development for seedlings Landis et al. The container tree nursery manual: volume 6, seedling propagation. Agriculture Handbook Washington, DC: U. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Establishment The establishment phase is one of the most critical for successful nursery operations.

For plants grown from seeds, the establishment phase is defined as the phase from the sowing of the seeds through the germination, emergence, and development of the first true leaves or primary needles.

For plants grown from cuttings, the establishment phase extends from placing cuttings into containers through the development of roots and shoots. Depending on the species, the establishment phase typically lasts than 6 to 12 weeks.

The goal of this phase is to maximize the amount of growing space filled with healthy plants, thereby minimizing losses. Rapid Growth During this phase, plants, particularly their shoots, increase dramatically in size. Often the terminal shoot begins to approach target size. Plants are still at least somewhat protected during this phase. Rapid but not excessive shoot growth is encouraged. Hardening During the hardening phase, energy is diverted from shoot growth to root growth. Root collar diameter and roots reach target specifications, and shoot growth is discouraged or even stopped.

They are also fortified so that they have the energy reserves to survive and grow after out-planting. Hardening is a crucial phase. It is a common mistake to rush hardening, resulting in plants poorly prepared for conditions on the out-planting site. When plants are not properly hardened, they may have the correct physical characteristics but survival after out-planting will be low because of an inadequate physiological condition. The goal of the hardening phase is to get plants conditioned for stress, prepared for out-planting, and ready to be delivered to the client in a timely fashion to avoid problems with holdover stock.

Problems with Holdover Stock and Improper Scheduling It is important to schedule and plan nursery production to make sure a crop goes through these three phases of development and is sent out from the nursery healthy and ready for out-planting.

Although it is sometimes relatively easy to grow a seedling to target size, the tricky part is the hardening phase: slowing growth before plants get too large and conditioning them so they have energy reserves and can withstand stress. After plants are in this state, prompt out-planting is essential to ensure they can take full advantage of their hardened condition. If the stock is held over, problems quickly become apparent.

Many factors can disrupt the ability to follow a time schedule, but a common problem is the failure of clients to pick up plants on schedule. In some cases, having penalties, such as storage fees, in the contract for late pickups may also encourage clients to pick up their plants in a timely fashion. If the schedule to out-plant after hardening is not met, however, various problems will emerge. The plant may begin to come out of dormancy, shoot growth begins, and it loses its resistance to stress.

New vegetative growth after hardening must not happen until after the stresses of lifting and out-planting have occurred; otherwise, it may expose the plant to severe stress from which recovery may be difficult.

When plants are held too long in the nursery, the root system becomes woody and loses its ability to take up water and nutrients. Structural problems may occur, too; roots may spiral figure 3. Figure 3. Propagation structures modify the atmospheric conditions of temperature, light, and relative humidity. Two essential processes in plants are photosynthesis and transpiration figure 4. Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy in the presence of chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves.

During photosynthesis, sugars are produced from carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil while oxygen is released back into the air. Photosynthesis is a leaky process because, to allow the intake of carbon dioxide, water vapor is lost through pores, or stomata, on the leaf surfaces.

This process is called transpiration. To maximize the photosynthesis necessary for plant growth, growers must manage any limiting atmospheric factors in the propagation environment. Figure 4. To do this, the best possible propagation environment must be designed for a specific nursery site.

It is helpful to separate these limiting factors of the environment into those in the atmosphere and those in the growing medium.

Atmospheric — Atmospheric limiting factors include light, temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, and organisms that are determined by the climate at the nursery if plants are grown outside. Propagation structures can be built to modify the local climate so that plants will grow more rapidly. For example, a greenhouse will modify light, temperature, and wind compared to the outside environment, which affects not only temperature but also humidity and carbon dioxide levels inside the greenhouse.

The greenhouse also affects the organisms that interact with the crop. For example, although a greenhouse structure can exclude insect pests, it also creates a more humid environment for new pests such as algae and moss. Growing Medium — Growing medium limiting factors include water and mineral nutrients. The type of propagation environment can certainly affect water use; mineral nutrients are supplied through fertilization, both water and mineral nutrients are held for plant uptake in the growing medium.

Organisms can be limiting in either the atmosphere or the growing medium. Animal pests, including insects, can be excluded from a nursery through proper design, and beneficial microbes, such as mycorrhizal fungi, can be promoted. Types of Propagation Environments When most people think of container nurseries, they think of greenhouses; however, many other propagation environments are available.

This environment could be as simple as a shady area under a tree or it could be a greenhouse with full environmental controls. It is important to realize that you do not need a greenhouse to grow plants. Many simpler and inexpensive propagation structures can be designed to create the type of growing environments that crops require. Understanding different types of propagation structures and how they work is critical whether designing a new nursery facility or modifying an existing one.

Container nursery facilities can be distinguished by their relative amount of environmental control: minimally controlled, semi-controlled, or fully controlled. Minimally Controlled Environments — A minimally controlled environment is the simplest and least expensive of all types of propagation environments. The most common type is an open growing compound. It consists of an area where plants are exposed to full sunlight and usually nothing more than an irrigation system and a surrounding fence.

Semi-controlled environments consist of a wide variety of growing structures ranging from simple cold frames to shade houses. Fully Controlled Environments — Fully controlled environments are propagation structures in which all or most of the limiting environmental factors are controlled. Examples include growth chambers and greenhouses. Fully controlled environments are often used because they have the advantage of year-round production in almost any climate.

In addition, most crops can be grown much faster than in other types of nurseries. These benefits must be weighed against the higher costs of construction and operation. The more complicated a structure is the more problems that can develop.

This concept is particularly true in the remote locations of many rural areas, where electrical power outages are more common and it is difficult, time consuming, and expensive to obtain specialized repair services. Managing the Propagation Environment In nurseries, a variety of horticultural techniques can be used to modify the propagation environment.

The type of propagation environment dictates the extent to which environmental conditions may be controlled. The main way, and one of the most critical, in which growers control their crops is by the type of container. Container volume, plant spacing etc. Different crops, as well as different stock types of the same species, may require different growing media. A steady supply of high quality water is one of the most critical needs of growing plants.

It is possible to greatly accelerate the growth of some plants with fertilizer, especially for very slow-growing species. Certain organisms can be extremely important for the health and growth of some nursery crops. Because of the high light intensity in greenhouses, controlling the light and temperature can be challenging. Growing media are used by the horticulture industry as well as consumers to support the development of plants. Types of Growing Media The range of growing media constituents used includes peat, coir pith, wood fibers, bark, composted materials i.

Growing media are often formulated from a blend of such raw materials, usually enriched with fertilizers, lime and sometimes biological additives in order to achieve the correct balance of physical, chemical and biological properties for the plants to be grown. Having the right growing media mix is as important for an optimal plant growth as water and fertilizers. Plant species differ considerably in their need for water and nutrients, and therefore need different kinds of growing media to provide the best growing conditions.

Due to this, a wide range of different kinds of growing media are available on the market. The horticulture industry uses thousands of different growing media mixes. Growing media available in the market Selecting the proper growing medium is one of the most important considerations in nursery plant production.

A growing medium can be defined as a substance through which roots grow and extract water and nutrients. When people first began to grow plants in containers, they used ordinary field soil but soon found that this practice created horticultural problems.

Placing soil in a container produces conditions drastically different from those of unrestricted field soil. In the first place, plants growing in containers have access to a very limited amount of growing medium compared to field-grown plants. This limited rooting volume means that nursery plants can access only a small amount of water and mineral nutrients and these resources can change quickly.

Second, containers create a perched water table, which means that water cannot drain freely out the bottom of the container. Third, native soils contain many microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, which do not exist in artificial growing media. Finally, native soils have texture particle size and structure particle aggregations that create porosity.

An artificial growing medium has a texture based on the size and shape of its particles but does not have structure because the individual particles of the various components do not bind together. Therefore, the textural properties of growing media components must be carefully chosen and blended to produce the right mixture of porosity that will persist throughout the growing cycle.

Seed Propagation Media. For germinating seeds or establishing germinant, the medium must be sterile and have a finer texture to maintain high moisture around the germinating seeds. Media for Rooting Cuttings. Cuttings are rooted with frequent misting, so the growing medium must be very porous to prevent water logging and to allow good aeration, which is necessary for root formation.

Transplant Media. When smaller seedlings or rooted cuttings are transplanted into larger containers, the growing medium is typically coarser and contains compost. Functions of Growing Media In a plant nursery, a growing medium serves four functions: i. Characteristics of an Ideal Growing Media Because no single material can meet all of the above criteria, artificial growing media often consist of at least two components. Therefore, growers must be familiar with the positive and negative characteristics of the various components and how they will affect plant growth in order to select a commercial medium or make their own.

For our discussion, these characteristics can be divided into physical and chemical properties. Selecting a Growing Medium A wide variety of commercial mixes are available that feature combinations of the components mentioned above.

Although most media, such as peat vermiculite, contain only two to three components, the exact composition of a brand may vary by location.

Always read the label before purchasing a commercial mix. To appeal to a broader market, many brands contain a wide variety of additional amendments including fertilizers, wetting agents, hydrophilic gels, and even beneficial microorganisms.

Again, always check the label to be sure of exactly what is being purchased. Many plant growers prefer to purchase components separately and mix their own custom growing media. A very porous and well-drained medium, for example, might be needed for plants from very dry habitats. When considering a new growing medium, first test it on a small scale with several species. In this way new media can be evaluated and plant quality compared before making a major change with the whole crop.

Because of the diverse characteristics of the various growing media components, a grower can formulate a growing medium with almost any desired property. Be aware, however, that the physical, chemical, and biological properties of each growing medium are strongly affected by cultural practices, particularly irrigation, fertilization, and the type of container. Because the growing medium controls water and nutrient availability, it is easiest and most efficient to design custom mixes when several species are grown in the same irrigation zone.

For the same reason, it is not a fair test to place a few containers of a new medium on a bench under existing irrigation and fertilization.

Creating a Homemade Growing Medium Although standard commercial mixes, such as peat vermiculite, are generally superior for growing crops, some plant nurseries prefer to formulate their own homemade medium. Reasons include poor availability of commercial media, price, lack of adequate storage, or simple preference. Many plant nurseries are located in remote areas, where transport costs for media components or commercial mixes may exceed their actual price.

Use of Field Soil Most container nurseries prefer artificial growing media, but owners of some plant nurseries think that soil-based media are more natural or organic.

When considering native soil, several things should be kept in mind. Soils are naturally variable, so it is difficult to maintain the same quality from container to container or crop to crop.

Ecological sustainability should also be considered. Harvesting topsoil is actually a mining operation that uses up a limited resource that took thousands of years to develop. If the decision is made to use native soil, we still recommend a sterile, uniform artificial media for germinating seeds, rooting cuttings, and any plants growing in smaller containers. The safest use of native soils is to incorporate a small amount 10 to 20 percent into the mix when transplanting into larger containers.

Adding a small amount of topsoil introduces desirable microorganisms into the medium and adds weight for greater stability. Be aware that most topsoil contains weed seeds that will germinate quickly in the ideal growing environment of a nursery. When selecting soil, use dark topsoil that has a high percentage of organic matter; and lighter sandy loams are better than heavy clays figure 5. Preparation of a growing media with native soil Harvesting soil from beneath healthy plants of the same species being grown ensures that the proper microorganisms will be present.

After collection, sift the soil through a 0. When using native soils, heat pasteurization will eliminate fungal pathogens, insect pests, nematodes, and weeds. Some compost has also been found to suppress seed-borne and soil-borne pathogens. Many brands of commercial compost are available in the market figure 5. Compost can also be made on-site. Locating suitable organic materials for composting will vary considerably depending on the region where the nursery is located.

Examples include grass, leaves, fruit wastes, groundnut shells, rice hulls, wood waste such as sawdust or bark, sugar cane, manure, and even chicken feathers. Another benefit is that organic nursery wastes, such as used growing media or cull seedlings, can be composted, which reduces the costs and hassle of their disposal.

Compost derived from waste Making good compost is a rather technical process and takes some practice to learn. Here, we present some of the basic principles for creating compost for use in container production of local plants.

This brief description is meant only to introduce basic concepts and principles, not to serve as a step-by-step guide2. Composting is a natural process in which a succession of insects, fungi, and bacteria decompose organic matter and change its composition.

The purpose of composting is to accelerate and control this process by modifying environmental conditions, especially moisture and temperature. Other factors that can be controlled include carbon-to-nitrogen ratio C:N , aeration, and particle size. Finished composts should have a C:N of about Materials such as sawdust have much higher C:N, which slows the composting process unless nitrogen fertilizer is added. Green organic materials fresh grass and fruit wastes have a higher proportion of nitrogen compared to that of brown materials tree leaves or sawdust , which contain more carbon.

The particle size of your organics is very important. Particles that are too large reduce the surface area 2 Martin, D. The Rodale book of composting. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. Wightman, K. Good tree nursery practices: practical guidelines for community nurseries. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry. Nairobi, Kenya: Majestic Printing Works. Inoculating composted pine bark with beneficial organisms to make a disease suppressive compost for container production in Mexican forest nurseries.

Native Plants Journal 5 2 : A mixture of particles in the 0. In well-aerated compost piles, however, particles can generally be at the smaller end of this range. Maintaining adequate aeration is an important, yet often overlooked, factor. Microorganisms need an adequate and continual supply of oxygen, so it is important to turn over your compost pile once or twice a week.

Poor aeration can delay or even stop the composting process. One good procedure to make certain the components are well mixed and all parts of the pile get proper aeration is to create an elongated windrow by turning over the pile in one direction. Moisture is another critical factor; the moisture content must be high enough to promote microbial activity but not so high as to reduce aeration and decrease temperature. Figure 5. A mixture of green and brown organic materials for composting Several independent microbial decomposition phases occur during the composting process, creating a distinctive temperature sequence.

Growers can check the progress and detect problems in their compost heaps by monitoring with long-stemmed thermometers figure 5.

Measuring temperature in compost 5. Determining Maturity of Compost Mature compost should be dark in color and have a rich, earthy smell. The texture should be friable and crumbly; the original organic materials should not be recognizable.

Earthworms and soil insects invade mature composts and are an excellent sign that the compost is complete and ready to use. Several tests help determine if your compost is mature and safe to use. These procedures, described in the following list, can also be used when purchasing commercial composts: Sniff-and-Feel Test — Place a small amount of compost into a plastic bag and seal it and keep for a day.

If it feels hot or smells like manure or ammonia, it has not yet completed the composting process and is not suitable for use. Germination Test — Collect a sample of compost and put it into a small container. Sow seeds of a rapidly growing plant such as radish or lettuce, and place the sample in a window or in the greenhouse. If the compost is mature, the seeds should germinate and grow normally within a week or so.

After making the first batch of compost, it is a good idea to have a soils laboratory test it so that any nutritional deficiencies can be detected and corrected. Finally, before using composts, they should be sifted through a screen to remove large particles.

Mixing Growing Media The mixing process is critical to producing custom growing media; the quality of the best components is compromised if the growing medium is improperly mixed.

Improper mixing is one of the major causes of variation in container plant quality. Mixing should be performed by diligent, experienced workers who will faithfully monitor the quality of the growing media.

Most small local plant nurseries, however, cannot afford specialized equipment and prefer to prepare small batches of growing medium by hand. Be sure to screen soil or compost to remove sticks and break up large clods. Pile the components on top of one another and broadcast any amendments over the pile. Then work around the edge of the pile with a large scoop shovel, taking one shovel full of material at a time and turning it over onto the top of the pile.

As this material is added to the top, it tumbles down all sides of the pile and is mixed. Make sure that the center of the pile is mixed by gradually moving the location of the pile to one side during the mixing procedure. Some organic components repel water when dry, so misting the pile with water at frequent intervals during mixing makes the medium absorb water better. Continue this procedure until samples from the pile appear to be well mixed.

After a container is selected, it can be very expensive and time consuming to change to another type. Many terms have been used to describe containers in nurseries and some are used interchangeably. In general, individual cavities are permanently aggregated into blocks, and cells are independent containers that can be inserted in or removed from trays or racks. Most nurseries grow a wide variety of species and therefore several different containers will be required figure 6.

The choice of container for a particular native plant species depends on root system morphology, target plant criteria and economics. Considerations in Choosing Containers 6. Size Container size can be described in many ways, but volume, height, diameter, and shape are most important.

Optimum container size is related to the species, target plant size, growing density, length of the growing season, and growing medium used. For example, to grow large woody plants for an out-planting site with vegetative competition, a nursery would choose large volume containers with low densities.

These plants would be taller, with larger root-collar diameters, and have been shown to survive and grow better under these conditions. In all nurseries, container size is an economic decision because production costs are a function of how many plants can be grown per area of bench space in a given time.

Larger containers occupy more growing space and take longer to produce a firm root plug. Therefore, plants in larger containers are more expensive to produce, and they are also more expensive to store, ship to the project site, and out-plant. The benefits, however, may outweigh the costs if the out-planting objectives are more successfully satisfied. Height — Container height is important because it determines the depth of the root plug, which may be a consideration on dry out-planting sites.

Many clients want the plants to have a deep root system that can stay in contact with soil moisture throughout the growing season. Height is also important because it determines the proportion of freely draining growing medium within the container. When water is applied to a container filled with growing medium, it percolates downward under the influence of gravity until it reaches the bottom. There, it stops due to its attraction for the growing medium, creating a saturated zone that always exists at the bottom of any container.

Two things control the depth of this saturated layer— container height and the type of growing medium. With the same growing medium, the depth of the saturation zone is always proportionally greater in shorter containers. Diameter — Container diameter is important in relation to the type of species being grown.

Broad-leaved trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants need a larger container diameter so that irrigation water can penetrate the dense foliage and reach the medium. Shape — Containers are available in a variety of shapes and most are tapered from top to bottom. Container shape is important as it relates to the type of out-planting tools used and the type of root system of the species grown.

Plant Density In containers with multiple cells or cavities, the distance between plants is another important factor to consider. Spacing affects the amount of light, water, and nutrients that are available to individual plants. In general, plants grown at closer spacing grow taller and have smaller root-collar diameters than those grown farther apart. Plant leaf size greatly affects growing density. Broad-leaved species should be grown only at fairly low densities, whereas smaller-leaved and needle-leaved species can be grown at higher densities.

Container spacing will affect height, stem straightness, root-collar diameter, and bushiness. Container spacing also affects nursery cultural practices, especially irrigation. Most native plants have very aggressive roots that quickly reach the bottom of the container and may spiral or become root-bound.

Several container design features have been developed specifically to control root growth and development. Some containers feature a bottom rail to create this air layer, whereas flat-bottomed containers must be placed on specially designed benches. On the other hand, the drainage hole must be small enough to prevent excessive loss of growing medium during the container-filling process.

Root Pruning — Spiraling and other types of root deformation have been one of the biggest challenges for container growers, and nursery customers have concerns about potential problems with root-binding after out-planting The research, most of which has been done with forest trees, showed that root-bound seedlings were more likely to blow over after out-planting.

The aggressive roots of native plants, however, can be culturally controlled by chemical or air pruning. Although both pruning methods have been used in forest nurseries, they are uncommon in native plant nurseries. Chemical pruning involves coating the interior container walls with chemicals that inhibit root growth, such as cupric carbonate or copper oxychloride.

Copper- coated containers are available commercially and some nurseries apply the chemical by spraying or dipping. Copper toxicity has not been shown to be a problem for most native species, and the leaching of copper into the environment has been shown to be minimal. Several companies have developed containers that featured air slits on their sides to control spiraling and other root deformation by air pruning. Just as when plant roots air prune when they reach the bottom drainage hole, they stop growing and form suberized tips when they reach the lateral slits in side-slit containers.

Forest nurseries found that side-slit containers had two drawbacks i. Soft versus Hard Plugs — Better out-planting performance is usually achieved with container plants whose roots form a firm root plug, but the amount of root deformation increases with the amount of time that plants are kept in a given container.

A hard or firm plug is achieved when plant roots bind the growing medium just enough to facilitate extraction from the container without the medium falling off the roots. Source: Mother Goose Caboose! Songs and Rhymes to Share author WebJunction. Children's books in PDF.

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